You will study the time period 1853 to 1894, two extremely important years in the modern history of Japan. The country moved from an authoritarian state to something that resembled a constitutional monarchy, and possibly a limited democracy.
In this Focus Study, you will answer the following questions:
A. What caused the transition to take place?
B. How was the transition achieved?
C. What challenges did society face after the transition?
The resources on this page give you a basic introduction to the period prior to the Meiji Restoration of 1868.
The Birth of the Tokugawa Shogunate
Timeline
Below are some of the significant dates in and around the timeframe.
1839-42 First Opium War fought between Britain and China. It led to the Treaty of Nanjing, giving Britain Hong Kong and increased the number of treaty ports from one (Canton) to five.
1853-4 US Navy Commodore Perry first met with the Japanese (although Washington gave permission to do so in 1852). He had a substantial force for the meeting, even publicised to the world beforehand (Perry was determined not to be turned away). The Japanese government wanted to turn him away but knew they were outgunned.
1856-1860 Second Opium War. Britain took advantage of the Qing government’s problems with the Taiping Rebellion to further their trade. A protracted war resulted in GB taking Kowloon and gaining more trade advantages.
1859 By this year, all the major powers had access to Japanese markets and to the key ports. Some also had the law of extraterritoriality agreed upon, whereby foreigners could not be tried in Japanese courts, regardless of their crime.
1860 PM Naosuke assassinated because of his policy of compromising with foreigners.
1868 Meiji Restoration. This was a political and social revolution in Japan from 1866 to 1869 that ended the power of the Tokugawa shogunate and returned the Emperor to a central position in Japanese politics and culture. It is named for Mutsuhito, the Meiji Emperor, who served as the figurehead for the movement.
1871-73 Iwakura Mission, government representatives sent to Europe to gather information.
1894-95 War with China. It was fought over the influence for the Korean peninsula, arguably started by the Japanese by fermenting dissent to Chinese influence. China responded but the ensuing Japanese victory was a surprise to all.
The Birth of the Tokugawa Shogunate
The Shogunate
Feudal Japan’s Social Hierarchy: The Shi-Nō-Kō-Shō System
- Kyoto was the emperor’s capital, the Shogun (the military leader) was represented by a governor. However, the emperor was a virtual prisoner in his own palace.
- Edo (later Tokyo) was the Shogun’s capital city. He held feudal control of 15% of Japan’s land and with the samurai (vassals of lords) a further 10%.
- The Bakufu were the administrators of the government.
- The Daimyo were the feudal lords, largely free of Edo’s interference. These lords did not owe anything to the Shogun (such as rice or money) but had to be loyal such was his power to take things away from them. However, they did have to carry out public works when required (perhaps once in a generation).
- The samurai under the Tokugawa Shogunate were largely farmer soldiers. However, this changed and fewer became farmers. Only those samurai in public office or had status were financially secure. To achieve this, nepotism or marriage were required, not merit.
- The Tokugawa hierarchy could be as follows: samurai, farmer, artisan and merchant. However, W.G. Beasley argues in ‘The Rise of Modern Japan‘ there is just samurai and then there is the rest.
- Feudalism prevented the movement of labour, industries were limited in what they could produce, there was largely only the domestic market, and the isolation kept technology back. And as feudal debt was a problem in the 19th century, Japan found it difficult to find solutions.
What was the Meiji Restoration?
According the Kären E. Wigen, what were the key changes from the Meiji Period? 07:04-End
Western Influence
- 1853, the USA wanted peace with Japan but as long as she stopped seeing them as enemies. The letter brought by Perry also contained a plan to bring a larger naval force in 1854, landing in Edo with eight ships. Despite the Bakufu trying to reject Perry, they knew their defences could not repel the Americans and a convention (Treaty of Kanagawa) was signed in which two ports were opened to them.
What can you infer from this source about US intentions towards Japan?
The letter continues with requests for assistance in whale fishing and improved trade links but one of the final paragraphs is as follows.
How is this different to the start of the letter?
What are the values of this letter to the historian?
And what are the limitations?
- Eventually five ports were opened to foreigners: Nagasaki and Kanagawa (Yokohama) from 1859, Niigata from 1860, Hyogo (Kobe) from 1863, and the already open Shimoda and Hakodate. Extraterritoriality (foreigners to be tried under their own law) and low tariffs were part of the deal too.
- In the Namamugi incident of 1862, a samurai murdered a British man. In response, Britain used gunboat diplomacy to extract concessions and an indemnity. Refusal led to bombardment of the mainland (Satsuma opened fire first). Japan suffered houses and ships destroyed and relented, paying 25 000 sterling in compensation (2.3 million in 2018 money).
- Foreign powers also forcibly opened the Shimonoseki Straits (between islands) in 1864.
- The major powers had access to Japanese markets by 1859 despite the internal opposition (they all signed their own agreements after Kanagawa). The British victory over China in the Opium War was a factor.
Stagnation and demands for rapid modernisation.
Influence of the United States and European countries
B. How was the transition achieved?
Ferguson, N. Civilization: The West and the Rest, 2011, Penguin, p. 132
Answer the following questions from the video below:
(clipped from Emperor Meiji & the Meiji Restoration Documentary :
- When and why was japan isolated, and what benefits did it bring the country? 2.40-4.15
- Why do you think the Japanese would have been too difficult to defeat and colonise in the 17th century?4.31-4.48
- Why did this change in the 19th century? What example did the Japanese use to realise this? 4.49-5.27
- What was the impact of Commodore Perry’s visit to Japan? 5.28-6.55
The Bosin War, essentially a civil war, took place between 1868 and 1869. It culminated in the Shogun renouncing his claim to power. However, some provinces and daimyos rejected the new authority in Japan and fought on until 1689.
(clipped from Emperor Meiji & the Meiji Restoration Documentary :
- What happened in 1867 and why was Japan divided? 08:20-10:00
- What was the Meiji Restoration? 10:00-11:28
- What were the five changes to the Japanese government during the Meiji Restoration? 13:00-14:15
- And what happened to the capital city? 14:30-14:55
One of the five changes was the end of the feudal system and this eventually (it took until the 1880s) completely changed how people lived. Japan moved from feudal economy to one that was more market-orientated or capitalist.
- What was the Iwakura Mission? 15:50-17:28
- What did they learn and what was achieved? 17:28-20:02
- Do all agree that the Meiji Restoration improved Japan? 21:00-22:00
- How did the Japanese military grow in size? 22:00-25:29
- What was the Meiji government’s policy towards Korea? 25:30-28:00
- Roles of the Meiji oligarchy and Emperor Mutsuhito.
- Land reform, industrialisation and trade.
- Constitution of 1889.
C. What challenges did society face after the transition?
- Peasant unrest.
- Satsuma Rebellion.
- Foreign Relations and imperialism.
Primary Sources